During the ancient period the Zo people are said to have possess their own script written on parchments. In course of their migration to distant lands these parchments were lost. Some believed that they were eaten by hungry dogs. Zo language is believed to be very old language as told by elders of the community. Zo language had been in usage circa A.D 850, Prof. G.H Luce stated that the though it is known as Tibeto-Burman their common language is either Chin or Kachin or the combination of both of them. The Zo language is very closely related to the Kachin language.
The coming of missionaries into the land of the Zo people nearly coincides with the education of the people and thus we may say that the historical linguistics of Zo language begins with the advent of the missionaries into the Zo country; eastern and western regions.
In the year 1912 A.D the Royal Asiatic Society, Calcutta was founded with Dr.George A.Grierson as one of its founders. In one of its journal they proposed Roman alphabet to write the dialects of the wild tribes. Zo literature also saw its birth sometime in the second decade of the 20th century. In 1904-1930,Dr.George A.Grierson prepared a detailed descriptions of Kuki-Chin languages in Part 3 Vol No.3
Lushai/Mizo/Lusei language
Dulien,Duhlian,Lusei and Lushai are one and the same language what is today known as Mizo. In 1893 R. Arthington of the Arthington Aborigines Mission sent two missionaries to Aizawl. In 1894 F.W.Savidge and J.H.Lorraine reached southwest Mizoram. They learned the Lushai(Mizo) language and introduced the Roman script for writing the unwritten Lushai language. They translated some Bible parables. They taught the people how to read and write in their mission schools. They translated the Gospel of St. John and the Acts of the Apostles in Lushai language. They were transferred in 1897.
Thus, Lushai/Lusei literature began its long journey from then onwards. In 1898, Rev.D.E Jones reached the western part of Lushai Hills. By 1899,he visited all the important villages they opened up missionary schools and taught the Duhlien dialect.
The complete New Testament was published in 1916. J.H.Lorraine started preparing the Lushai-English Dictionary which was published in 1940. The entire Holy Bible(minus Apocripha) translation was completed on 30th June,1955. It was printed at Calcutta and it was published in 1959 by BSI. Now,the Mizo language studied as MIL from Cl.IX,X in Manipur. till M.A level in the states of Meghalaya and Mizoram.
Hmar language
The Hmar language belongs to the Kuki-Chin-Naga sub-group of Tibeto-Burman stock of the great Sino-Tibetan family of languages. The speakers of the language are also known as Hmar. The allograph of Hmar,as recorded in some books is Mhar.
Hmar speakers are scattered over a vast area in Mizoram,Manipur, NC Hills and Cachar districts of Assam state,India. There is no homogenous settlement of Hmar speakers alone. Hmar is a recognised language in the School curriculum of Assam, Manipur and Mizoram, and also recently recognised as one of the Modern Indian Language (MIL) at Manipur University. Board of Secondary Education, Assam has also included Hmar as an MIL in its matriculation syllabus from 2005.
The beginning of written languages in Hmar can be traced to the arrival of missionaries Dr Peter Fraser and his wife Mrs. Fraser sent by Welsh Missionary Society. in 1906 at Senvon. Evangelist Watkin R.Roberts was an independent missionary.
In 1908-9, Dr. Fraser arrived at Aizawl where he opened a clinic to treat the hillmen. He appointed Rev. W.R. Roberts as his assistant. Rev. W. R. Roberts began to learn the Lushai language. He visited many villages in Lushai Hills. He bought 104 copies of the Gospel of St. John in Lushai and he distributed them among the Hmar people and one copy was specially sent to the Chief of Senvon,Mr. Kamkholun. The chief of Senvon was greatly impressed by the book he at once requested Rev. W.Roberts to come to Senvon to tell more about the book and his gospel. In those days,Senvon was the biggest Hmar village in Manipur. In spite of ,many warnings by the British officials in Aizawl from the wild head-hunters of those days,Rev.W.Roberts accompanied by two students Lungpau and Thangkhai(both belonging to Vaiphei tribe became the first Christians in Manipur south west area) began their journey from Aizawl on 31,January 1910 towards Senvon. They reached Senvon on 5th February 1910.
On the request of Chief of Senvon,Rev.W.Roberts sent three Bible students who volunteered themselves viz; Savawma,Vanzika and Thangchhingpuia to be evangelist teachers. They arrived at Senvon on 7th May 1910. They opened a Mission School at Senvon Hmunte. They also taught the Good News to the peoples besides teaching them the 3 Rs. Thus, the Hmar language saw its birth through those missionaries.
He translated the Gospel of St. John in Hmar language. In those days, the Mission was referred to as Thadou-Kuki Pioneer Mission(1910-1928) which was later on renamed as North East India General Mission(NEIGM) in 1928.
In 1920,the Gospel of Mark in Hmar,translated by Mr.F.J.Sandy of Eldh Presbyterian Mission,was published at Aizawl. Later on,the whole of the New Testament was translated by Mr. H.S Thanglung,H.L Sela and others,was published in 1946. Mr. R. Dala wrote a book titled ‘Khrista Hnena mi huai Dan’ and he published a monthly magazine called ‘Thadou-Kuki Pioneer Mission’(Khristian Tlangau Bu).
Vaiphei language The Gospel of St. John was translated into Vaiphei by Rev.Watkins.R.oberts and it was published in 1917 by Bible Society of India. The New Testament and Psalms printed in 1957 were translated by Mr. Siaklam assisted by Mssrs.Liankhopao,Khaivung,Zamkai and Pauva. In 1967,the book of Genesis was printed by the Bible Society of India. Mr. Th.Lamboi with the help of the Trinitarian Bible Society in London published Bible in 1979. Vaiphei is a developing language.
Haka/Hakha(Lai) and Khalkha languages
In 1898,Rev.Carson and his wife reached Haka to preach the Good News. On 15,March,1899, Rev. Arthur Carson and his wife of A.B.M reached Haka the capital of the Chin State/Hills,with much difficulties he managed to convert one person in 1904,after struggling for five years. He introduced the Roman alphabet and taught the people how to write in their mother tongue. He translated the New Testament into different dialects. He died on 1,April,1908 at Haka.
On 5,April,1906 Chester Strait arrived at Haka. He learnt the Haka(Lai) language well. He established a Bible school at Haka in May,1928 with few students. He prepared Sunday school lessons and translated the New Testament in Lai(Haka) language which was published by Mission Press Rangoon in 1940.
Thado-Kuki language
On the demand of Rev. William Pettigrew, Dr.Grozier came to Kangpokpi in the last part of 1909. From 1910 onwards,he set up a Medical Centre at Kangpokpi Mission Compound servving as Doctor for the sick and the poor. The history of this language began with the arrival of the missionaries at Kangpokpi,Manipur state. T.C Hodson(1905) called this language as Thado,Rev. William Pettigrew named it Thadou. Longkhobel Kilong(1922) and Thomsong Ngulhao(Lekhabul,Thadou Kuki first Primer 1927) called it Thadou Kuki.
T.Lunkim,in the early 1970s proposed the name of this language as ‘Kuki’. He wrote the Holy Bible in Kuki.Mssrs. Lt.R.Steward (author of ‘ A slight notice of the Grammar of Thado or New Kuki language published in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal 1857) and Dament called it Thado language and local dialect it is known as Thado pao. Thadou or Thadou-Kuki is a language spoken in the states of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur and in the Chin Hills of Burma, Homalin areas of Upper Burma and Chittagong tracts of Bangladesh. It is widely spoken language belonging to the Kuki-Chin sub-group of Tibeto-Burman sub-family of Sino-Tibetan families of languages.It shares linguistic similarities and ethnographic similarities with the other dialects of th Kuki-Chin sub-groups. Now,the Thado-Kuki language taken as MIL from Cl.IX,X till Cl.XII the state of Manipur.
Paite language
The beginning of written languages in Paite can also be traced to the arrival of missionaries Dr Peter Fraser and his wiwfe Mrs. Fraser sent by Welsh Missionary Society. in 1906 at Senvon. Evangelist Watkin R.Roberts was an independent missionary.
Rev. W. R. Roberts began to learn the Lushai language. He visited many villages in Lushai Hills. He bought 104 copies of the Gospel of St. John in Lushai and he distributed them among the Hmar people and other neighbouring people.
In spite of ,many warnings by the British officials in Aizawl from the wild head-hunters of those days, Rev.W.Roberts accompanied by two students Lungpau and Thangkhai(both belonging to Vaiphei tribe became the first Christians in Manipur south west area) began their journey from Aizawl on 31,January 1910 towards Senvon. They reached Senvon on 5th February 1910.
On the request of Chief of Senvon, Rev.W.Roberts sent three Bible students who volunteered themselves viz; Savawma or Thangbula ? , Vanzika and Thangchhingpuia to be evangelist teachers. They arrived at Senvon on 7th May 1910. They opened a Mission School at Senvon Hmunte. They taught the Good News to the peoples besides teaching them the 3 Rs. He translated the Gospel of St. John in Hmar language. In those days, the Mission was referred to as Thadou-Kuki Pioneer Mission(1910-1924/28?) which was later on renamed as North East India General Mission(NEIGM) in 1924 or 1928? by Rev. H. Coleman,due to some misunderstandings between him and Rev.Watkin Roberts. Mr. H.K.Dohnuna and Rev.Watkin Roberts established a denominations called Independent Church of India(ICI). The Assembly includes various communities such as Paite,Lushai,Hmar,Thado-Kuki,Zo. From 1910 till 1947 there was one administration under the umbrella of NEIGM. As the number of tribes increased there arose linguistic problems amongst them. So,inorder to facilitate smooth functioning of the NEIGM,a resolution was passed in 1948 to divide NEIGM into different Presbyteries.
In March,1948, just before the General Assembly to be held in 1949, the South Eastern Area Presbytery consisting mainly of Paite tribe and others(e.g. Zos of South District of Manipur now known as Churachandpur district,India), resolved to remain as separate Presbytery and they held their own conference at Kaihlam in 1949. It became the first Paite Christian Conference. In 1950 Songtal conference it was renamed as Manipur Christian Convention,later on was renamed as Evangelical Convention Church, now it is Evangelical Baptist Church.
The Gospel of St. John was translated by T.C Tiankham, Nengzachin, Vungthawn, Chinlang and Thangkhawgin were published by NEIGM. The first edition of the New Testament and Psalms as translated by the above persons was published in 1951 by the Bible Society of India(BSI). Another version of the New Testament edited by Rev. Nengzachin,Jamkhothang,Vungthawn,Nengthawn,Khamkam and Englian was printed in 1959 by BSI. The complete Bible in Paite(minus Apocripha) was translated by Rev. Nengzachin and committee was published in 1971.
Now,the Paite language taken as MIL from Cl.IX,X til B.A(TDC) in the state of Manipur.
Tiddim Chin or Tedim Chin language
Like Mizo, Paite, Thadou-Kuki, Hmar, Siyin, Gangte, Vaiphei, Zotung, Zophei, Mara and other Kuki-Chin languages, the Tiddim Chin is writtten in Roman script which was introduced by Rev. J.H Cope in about 1910 A.D in Tedim town the Chin Hills of Myanmar(Burma).
The origin and growth of the Tiddim Chin language and its literature owes to one great missionary; Rev. Joseph Hebert Cope of American Baptist Mission. In December 21,1908, he reached Haka and learnt the Haka and Falam dialects to spread the word of God but he was not very successful. In 1910, he arrived at Tedim town in Chin Hills, Myanmar(Burma) and he learnt the Tedim-Chin or Tiddim-Chin the local language of those areas. He had to face a lot of resistance and hardships especially from the orthodox Tiddim people. It took many years to convert souls for Christ.
Kamhau dialect, Tedim, Tedim-Chin, Tiddim-Chin language
Prior to the development of Zo language in Burma, the most developed language and literature was that of Kamhau dialect later on rechristened as Tedim Chin or Tiddim Chin dialect found in the region covering Tedim, Tonzang, Teizang, Mualpi etc the Northern Chin Hills of Burma. The loconym Tedim is the allograph of Tiddim-Chin vice-versa.
In the beginning of the 20th century Pu Kamhau one of the Sukte Chiefs(Innpite) of the Chin Hills, patronized and propagated his own dialect which was very similar to the present Tiddim-Chin dialect. He made it as the official language of his tracts with the patronage of the British Rulers and British missionaries of those days. It was known as Kamhau dialect. In many books it is also recorded as Sukte dialect. Rev. J.H. Cope compiled hymn book in Tedim dialect and he also published portions of the Gospels. In 1913, he compiled the first Chin Primer in Tedim dialect using Roman Scripts called Mang Tual Lai). In 1915, J.H Cope translated the ‘Mate Lai Siangtho’ (Gospel of St.Mathew) in Kamhau dialect and it was printed by British & Foreign Bible Society,Rangoon and the ‘Zawhang Lai Siangtho’(Gospel of St.John) in Kamhau dialect, 1923. These Bibles were the forerunners of the later days Tiddim-Chin Bibles. In 1931, The Sermont on the Mount was published in Pau Cin Hau script with the help of Mrs. Cope and Pu Thang Cin Kham of Tonzang village. Due to the non-availability of printing technology for this script it could not be fully developed as a means of education in schools. He began to publish a 16 page bulletin called Tedim Thukizakna with the help of local pastors and literates from 1919 till his death in 1938.
About 1920-21, there was a Educational Conference at Falam which agreed to develop the Roman alphabet as a medium of instructions for schools in place of Burmese. The Chin Education Conference at Maymyo was held on 23rd October 1923, wherein the members resolved to prepare school text-books in Tiddim-Chin language. Consequently, in 1922, Rev. J.H Cope was confered the rank of Honorary Inspector of Schools for the whole of Chin Hills. Henceforth, he was known as Sângmâng Pa ‘Master of Schools’. In the year 1925, he organized all the Primary Schools into Tedim Chin Primary Schools.
As informed by Rev. Thang Kho Chin of Phaitu village, it is recorded that when Rev. J.H Cope tried to prepare folktales in the Tiddim-Chin Readers he could not satisfactorily gather detailed accounts of the Zo folktales among the Tedim/Tiddim speaking people, it is said that some Tedim/Tiddim speaking elders advised Rev. J.H Cope, to collect the Zo folktales and stories from the the Zo people who still preserve their ancient customs, traditions and folktales, still in tact. So, he consulted and interviewed Pu Tuong Za Go of Lomzang village in Tongzang Myuone who knew many Zo folktales and stories, thus many Zo folktales and legends were incorporated into the Tiddim Chin reader. Much of the original and native Zo speech patterns and language were also incorporated in it. By 1925 A.D he prepared the Tiddim-Chin Readers. Later on, through revisions, the original Zo speech patterns and language usages found in the Tiddim-Chin Readers were gradually dropped in place of native Tiddim-Chin dialect. Perhaps, due to these historical facts of its origin and same ethnicity of the people of the regions, the Tiddim-Chin dialect is also named as Zo Lai in vernacular context by the scholars and writers, further linguistically it can also be proved that Tiddim-Chin dialect is a developed form of Zo language or a variety of Zo language.
In 1931,Rev J.H Cope translated portions of the New Testament in Tedim dialect. In 1932, assisted by Sia Vial Nang, Rev. J.H.Cope completed the first complete New Testament Bible in the Chin Hills which was published by British and Foreign Bible Society(Rangoon) in Kamhau/Tiddim-Chin dialect. In 1948, Sia Hau Go reprinted the New Testament, in Tedim Chin (Lai Siangtho thak, Tedim kam). In 1967, the New Testament and Psalms in Tedim kam was published by Bible Society of India, was officially released at Guwahati Conference of CBCNEI. On 12th June 1977, under the aegis of the Tedim Baptist Association and Chin Baptist Association(Lamka), with the assistance of the Bible Society of India published the complete Holy Bible(minus Apocripha) translated and edited by Rev. Kam Khaw Thang of Burma, was released at Churachandpur, Manipur.
The Tiddim Chin or Tedim dialect is in fact, one of the most developed variety of Zo languages in Myanmar. It is an amalgamation of different Zo dialects which was spoken mainly in Tiddim/Tedim settlement and its surrounding villages, almost coinciding with the rise of the Sukte Chiefs of Chin Hills. The various Tedim Chin scholars of different professions have been trying to rechristen this language into full-fledged Zo language i.e Zokam since the early times of its inception, but their efforts have not really come into fruition till date. It seems that there is conceptual conflicts amongst the Tiddim Chin speakers as regards to naming Tiddim Chin language as Zokam thereby, totally abandoning the old nomenclature i.e Tiddim Chin which has found its way into world famous libraries and vernacular books since 1925 A.D. The Golden Jubilee of Zo Lai kum sawnga cin’na Pawi(1925-1975); Tiddim Chin Vernacular Golden Jubilee under the Chairmanships of Pu Shiing Khan Thang and Rev. Khup Za Go was commemorated in December, 1975 at Tangnuam, Churachandpur, Manipur, which was known as TIDDIM CHIN VERNACULAR GOLDEN JUBILEE. Thus, the origin, growth and develpment of Tiddim Chin language in Burma through the pioneering works of Rev.J.H Cope, benefited the people from the point of literature and religion.
Gangte language
The Gospel of St. Mathew was first book to be translated and published in 1951 by the BSI. The whole New Testament translated by Mr. Thongzakham and Mr. Vungzadal was published in 1959. The entire Bible (minus Apocripha) was translated by Mr. Khaigin Gangte of Evangelical Christian Synod(formerly known as Manipur Christian Synod) printed in 1991.
Kom language
The Gospel of St. Mathew was translated by Evan. Lunkhohen of American Baptist Mission was printed by BSI in 1954 and the entire New Testament was published in 1976 under the Chief translator Mr. Daniel Kom.
Simte language
The Gospel of St. John was translated by Mr. Ramlien Pudaite in 1957. The New Testament was printed in 1975 published by Trinitarian Bible Society of London. The entire Bible based on KJV English (minus Apocripha) was released on 20th January 1993 at Churachandpur,New Testament Baptist Church. The Simte language is the most recent offshoot of Zo/Zou language.
Diachronic Linguistic Studies of Zo language(Zome, Zomi, Zou, Zo/Zou hâm, Zo/Zou kam) and other cognate languages in Myanmar( Burma) and India.
Origin and Growth
Like Mizo, Tiddim-Chin, Paite, Thadou-Kuki, Hmar, Siyin, Gangte, Vaiphei, Zotung, Zophei, Mara and other Kuki-Chin languages, the Zo is writtten in Roman script which was introduced by Rev. J.H Cope in about 1910 A.D in Tedim town the Chin Hills of Myanmar(Burma).
The origin and growth of the Zo language and its literature owes to one great missionary; Rev. Joseph Hebert Cope of American Baptist Mission. In December 21,1908, he reached Haka and learnt the Haka and Falam dialects to spread the word of God but he was not very successful. In 1910, he arrived at Tedim town in Chin Hills, Myanmar(Burma) and he learnt the Tedim-Chin or Tiddim-Chin the local language of those areas. He had to face a lot of resistance and hardships especially from the orthodox Zo people. The practice of social drinking was prevalent in those days. Due to the orthodoxy of the Zo people who use to worship the supreme being called ‘Pasièn’ and their ancestors’ spirits called ‘Pusá’. The form of worship is known as ‘Pusá Biehna’. Their form of ancient ancestor worship or religion may be termed as ‘Lawkism’ in anglicized terminlogy. It took many years to convert souls for Christ.
Prior to the development of Zo language in Burma, the most developed language and literature was that of Kamhau dialect later on rechristened as Tedim Chin or Tiddim Chin dialect found in the region covering Tedim, Tonzang, Teizang, Mualpi etc the Northern Chin Hills of Burma. The loconym Tedim is the allograph of Tiddim-Chin vice-versa.
In the beginning of the 20th century Pu Kamhau one of the Sukte Chiefs(Innpite) of the Chin Hills, patronized and propagated his own dialect which was very similar to the present Tiddim-Chin dialect. He made it as the official language of his tracts with the patronage of the British Rulers and British missionaries of those days. It was known as Kamhau dialect. In many books it is also recorded as Sukte dialect. The Zote who settled in the high hills used to called the Tedim people as Simte people; ‘people of the south’. This fact is evident from the sayings in Zo language; simsiel southern mithun’; simsing ‘southern tree’; simlei ‘southern land’; simsing pa ‘flower of southern tree’ ; zosing pa ‘flower of zo tree’ etc. Rev. J.H. Cope compiled hymn book in Tedim dialect and he also published portions of the Gospels. In 1913, he compiled the first Chin Primer in Tedim dialect using Roman Scripts called Mang Tual Lai). In 1915, J.H Cope translated the ‘Mate Lai Siangtho’ (Gospel of St.Mathew) in Kamhau dialect and it was printed by British & Foreign Bible Society, Rangoon and the ‘Zawhang Lai Siangtho’(Gospel of St.John) in Kamhau dialect, 1923. These Bibles were the forerunners of the later days Tiddim-Chin Bibles. In 1931, The Sermont on the Mount was published in Pau Cin Hau script with the help of Mrs. Cope and Pu Thang Cin Kham of Tonzang village. Due to the non-availability of printing technology for this script it could not be fully developed as a means of education in schools. He began to publish a 16 page bulletin called Tedim Thukizakna with the help of local pastors and literates from 1919 till his death in 1938.
About 1920-21, there was a Educational Conference at Falam which agreed to develop the Roman alphabet as a medium of instructions for schools in place of Burmese. The Chin Education Conference at Maymyo was held on 23rd October 1923, wherein the members resolved to prepare school text-books in Tiddim-Chin language. Consequently, in 1922, Rev. J.H Cope was confered the rank of Honorary Inspector of Schools for the whole of Chin Hills. Henceforth, he was known as Sângmâng Pa ‘Master of Schools’. In the year 1925, he organized all the Primary Schools into Tedim Chin Primary Schools.
As informed by Rev. Thang Kho Chin of Phaitu village, it is recorded that when Rev. J.H Cope tried to prepare folktales in the Tiddim-Chin Readers he could not satisfactorily gather detailed accounts of the Zo folktales among the Tedim/Tiddim speaking people, it is said that some Tedim/Tiddim speaking elders advised Rev. J.H Cope, to collect the Zo folktales and stories from the the Zo people who still preserve their ancient customs, traditions and folktales, still in tact. So, he consulted and interviewed Pu Tuong Za Go of Lomzang village in Tongzang Myuone who knew many Zo folktales and stories, thus many Zo folktales and legends were incorporated into the Tiddim Chin reader. Much of the original and native Zo speech patterns and language were also incorporated in it. By 1925 A.D he prepared the Tiddim-Chin Readers. Later on, through revisions, the original Zo speech patterns and language usages found in the Tiddim-Chin Readers were gradually dropped in place of native Tiddim-Chin dialect. Perhaps, due to these historical facts of its origin and same ethnicity of the people of the regions, the Tiddim-Chin dialect is also named as Zo Lai in vernacular context by the scholars and writers, further linguistically it can also be proved that Tiddim-Chin dialect is a developed form of Zo language or a variety of Zo language.
In 1931,Rev J.H Cope translated portions of the New Testament in Tedim dialect. In 1932, assisted by Sia Vial Nang, Rev. J.H.Cope completed the first complete New Testament Bible in the Chin Hills which was published by British and Foreign Bible Society(Rangoon) in Kamhau/Tiddim-Chin dialect. In 1948, Sia Hau Go reprinted the New Testament, in Tedim Chin (Lai Siangtho thak, Tedim kam). In 1967, the New Testament and Psalms in Tedim kam was published by Bible Society of India, was officially released at Guwahati Conference of CBCNEI. On 12th June 1977, under the aegis of the Tedim Baptist Association and Chin Baptist Association(Lamka), with the assistance of the Bible Society of India published the complete Holy Bible(minus Apocripha) translated and edited by Rev. Kam Khaw Thang of Burma, was released at Churachandpur, Manipur.
Thus, the origin, growth and develpment of Zo/Zou language in Burma vis-a-vis Tiddim-Chin language through the pioneering works of Rev.J.H Cope, benefited the people from the point of literature and religion.
The Tiddim Chin or Tedim language is an amalgamation of different Zo dialects which was spoken mainly in Tiddim/Tedim settlement almost coinciding with the rise of the Sukte Chiefs of Chin Hills. The various Tedim Chin scholars of different professions have been trying to rechristen this language into full-fledged Zo language i.e Zokam since the early times of its inception, but their efforts have not really come into fruition till date. The Golden Jubilee of Zo Lai kum sawnga cin’na Pawi(1925-1975); Tiddim Chin Vernacular Golden Jubilee under the Chairmanships of Pu Shiing Khan Thang and Rev. Khup Za Go was commemorated in December, 1975 at Tangnuam, Churachandpur, Manipur, which was known as TIDDIM CHIN VERNACULAR GOLDEN JUBILEE.
After formally studying linguistic structures of various Kuki Chin languages, I have come to the conclusion that these different varieties of Kuki Chin sister languages must have originated from one common Mother language which is known as Proto-language in linguistic terminology. The similarities of Thado-Kuki, Tedim Chin, Paite, Hmar, Gangte, Vaiphei, Sihzang/Siyin, Khalkha, Haka, Ngawn, Zotung, Zophei etc with the Zo language tempts me to say that the major part of the linguistic features and structures of these languages must have sprung from the a Mother language for which Zo is a good candidate for in depth research and survey. The reasons for the long period of obscurity of the Zo or Zou language is their slow and late conversions into Christianity; the reason being they were orthodox ancestor worshippers practising their ancient religion of Lawkism. The other possible reason for its obscurity is political in nature, as we know from history of Chin Hills under the Sukte rulers; known as Innpité in vernacular parlance, perhaps, because of the constant struggle for supremacy and dominance between the Zo chiefs andthe Sukte rulers, the Zo people and its language must have been looked upon with disdain and scorn, combined with the patronization and chauvinism of the ruling clans for Tedim or Tiddim Chin language. The word Zo is the allograph of Zou or Jou vice-versa.
After the British Rulers left India and Burma, the Zo language suffered much disintegration and diversifications in terms of its orthographies specially in North East India. With floodgates of the tribe recognitions in the early part of the 1950s by Government of India(vis a vis Government of Manipur), various speech communities of the Kuki-Chin linguistic groups began to adopt their own dialects as the basis of their ethnic identity and differentiation to attain the new tribal status or tribalhood. Thus, the Kuki-Chin linguistic families and its socio-political world was split up into various ethnic minority groups or components namely; Aimol, Anal, Chiru, Chothe, Kom, Lamkang, Paite, Simte, Thadou, Gangte, Vaiphei, Zo/Zou etc, thus, in general we may say that they moved from their self-contained chieftainship status to newly created tribalhood or tribal status of post Independence; which became more of a bane rather than a boon for them on socio-economic and political fronts.
Prior to the 1950s, like the Zos in Burma, the Zos in India were staunch believers of their ancient fore-fathers religion; ancestor worship which I may be called it ‘Lawkism’ in anglicized terminology. In the early 1950s,with the advent and the full invasion of foreign religion in the form of Christianity, slowly the majority of the Zos were converted into Christian faith while some were converted individually, the major chunk of population underwent mass conversion under their clanhead or chieftain of the village, resulting in drastic transformations of their social systems, kinship systems, customs, cultures,and their tribe unity and solidarity.
With the advent of that new faith and its missionary activities came together with the modern education. Many youngmen became literate and enlightened into Christianity. In course of time, the newly educated persons felt the necessity of having a Church denominations based on their tribe or community to enable them to worship in their own mother tongues. They longed to have hymn books and the Bible in their own mother tongues. Since the beginnning of the 20th century in the early period of Christianity, the Zo/Zou community of India and Burma were using either the Paite or Tedim Hymn Books and Gospels. Some even used the Lushai Bible.
In 1946, some schools were opened among the Zos in South district of Manipur state. The E.C.C missionaries Mssrs.Vungdal, Khamzalian, Thongluon used to preach the Gospel among the Zo people of the then South District of Manipur state, India. Some people were converted to Christianity. However, in those days, there was no single organised Zo Christian denomination amongst them, in fact, they were scattered among various denominations such as E.C.C, E.A.C, ABM etc. After few years many Zos left their parent denominations MCConvention/ECC which were under N.E.I.G later on, it was rechristened as Evangelical Congregational Church of India (E.C.C.I) in November,1986.
Some newly educated Zos like Mr. Thawngzakhup and Mr. T. Kamzakhup began to organise the new converts into associations due to tribalism and linguistics reasons as perceived by them. On 20, February1, 1954, they founded a new denomination known as ‘Jou Christian Association’ (J.C.A) at Daijang village, South district, Manipur under the Chairmanship of Ngulzakhup. In 1956, they held the second J.C.A session at Buhsau village in which they renamed it as Manipur Christian Conference(MCC) so as to get a separate Presbytery affiliation under NEIGM.
Through their newly established church denomination, the Zos began to develop their language and literature in their own mother tongue. The first hymn book called ‘Zomi Christian Labupi’ was printed in 1954(500 copies) compiled and edited by Zomi Theme Committee, Tuaitengphai under the leadership of Pu. Thonghang(T.Tungnung), Pu.Kaizakham (K.Phiemphu) and Pu.Semkhopao (S.K.Samte). The hymn book is a unique piece, in a sense that the songs are written using much of the Zo poetical words, metaphors and similes which touches one’s heart and soul. They can be given the status of the Pioneers of Zo literature in Manipur(India). The second, third, fourth editions came out in 1956(2,000 copies), 1970(3000 copies), 1985( 1000 copies) and 1989(3000 copies; tonic solfa) respectively. Pu.S.K Samte published the first newspaper known as ‘Jougam-Thusuo’ in March, 1954. He used a mixture of Hunterian orthography and the A,B,C....Z system based on phonological features of the then unwritten Zo language, as it is evident from the spellings found in the newspaper1.
In 1956 A.D, (L) Pu. T. Nengkhogin prepared and published a Zo primer known as ‘Jou Simpat Bu2 ’ with the assistance of Pu S.K Samte. In that book he used the Roman Script, which is modified version of the English Alphabet. Since, he was the pioneer in Zo orthography(reading and writing system) in Manipur he could be given the title of the Father of Zo/Zou Literature(Zo Laipa) in Indian context. In 1957, Pu T.Gougin, Subedar Peter Thangkhokam, Pu Vummâng and Pu Jâmkhogin painstakingly collected and compiled the ancient mores, cultures, customs and traditions of the Zos from the various chiefs of Manipur. On 1.12.1957, they published the first ever Jou Customary Law3 book with the patronage of the Zo chiefs. Thus, all of them may be given the titles of the Fathers of Zo Customary Law book.
In the year 1958, Pu S.K.Samte prepared 4(four) books they are; Jou Lai Bu Ina, Jou Lai Bu IIna, Tuottung Bu and Jou Hindi Simpat. In 1961, Pu T.Gougin M.A published a book on Zo people known as ‘A Brief History of Zou’. In 1967, the first New Testament in Zokam was translated and published by Pu.S.K.Samte.
In the year 1967,Pu Thangkhanlal prepared 6(six) books on Zo language viz; Zolai Bu Khatna, Zolai Bu Nina, Naupangte Zolai Patna, Learners English Grammar and Hindi Vocabulary. He followed the Hunterian system i.e A, AW, B, CH orthography which is adopted by the Lushai(Mizo) literature and partly of Rev. J.H Cope’s orthography which is still used by the Tedim-Chins and some Zo people in Burma. Pu S.Mangsuanthang also prepared some Zo Primers following the same orthography. But the spelling usages employed by the two authors are not same.
Sometime in the year 1965-67, Mr. Thonghang, Mr. Semkhopao and Mr. Kaizakham translated the New Testament in Zomi which was published by the Bible Society of India.
In the late 1970 and early 80s the Catholic Church, Manipur published a book combining the Doxology and Hymns in Zo language called Jesu Minphat Un edited and compiled by Late Samuel Khamzakhup containing spelling usage very similar to the present day spellings.
Since, the world over and in almost all cultures and societies the sacred books and hymns play paramount role in the development and progress of their language and their literature, here, i shall briefly give the outlines of the genesis of the Holy Bible in Zo for public general knowledge.
The dawn of the 70s saw the rise of newly educated class of Zo/Zou society with renewed resurgence in terms of language and literature amongst the Zo/Zou society. The educated people as well as religious leaders and pastors of the Zo/Zou society were earger to have the complete Holy Bible in their mother tongue. To this aim in mind, M.G.P leaders prayed to B.S.I to publish the complete Holy Bible in Zo.But their prayers were rejected by B.S.I on the grounds of lack of market and jealousy of others. Those events led to more zeal amongst the people to have the complete Holy Bible in Zo, and that was the beginning of Zo/Zou Catholics and Protestants collaborations for a common Bible, so as to have a larger common market.Bro. A.Nehkhojang who was undergoing priestly training at Bangalore met Mr. C. Arangaden and Dr. M.P John, both of them agreed to print the complete Holy Bible in Zo. They presented him the a booklet titled ‘The Guiding Principles for Inter-Confessional Bible Translation’. On the 4th July, 1974 the Zo/Zou religious leaders and secular leaders welcomed Dr. M.P John at M.G.P house, Zomi Colony, Churachandpur with a Zo traditional shawl followed by a high lunch. In that meeting he spoke about the benefits of having the complete Bible and he also declared his approval to print the Zo Holy Bible infront of the people.
On 14th June, 1975 Rev. T. Ginzapao and Rev. Fr. Joy had a joint meeting at Don Bosco School, Phailien. Thereafter, ‘Zomi Inter-Confessional Bible Translation Project’ took off with much enthusiasm. The ‘Zomi Inter-Confessional Bible Translation Committee’ was set up with Elder Tunzakap as first Chairman and Mr. Stephen Semkholun as its Secretary.
On 29th June 1975 the second meeting took place where a Review Committee comprising the following members; Rev. Lienchinkhup Taithul B.D, Bro. A. Nehkhojang and Mr. P. Kaizakham with Mr. S.K Hao and Mr Felix Hemkhosoi as their assistants. As per the ‘The Guiding Principles for Inter-Confessional Bible Translation’ two committees were formed viz; Consultative Committte and Translation Committee.
The following were the composition of the Consultative Committee.
Members from M.G.P
1.Mr. Ngulzaneng 2. Elder P. Kaizakham B.A
3. Mr. Kaikhohao Finance Secy 4. Elder T. Dongzagin
5. Mr. Huatzakhai 6. Elder Langginmang
7. Mr. Thongpao Taithul 8. Mr. Ngulkhohen
Members from Catholic
1. Mr. Stephen Semkholun 2. Mr. T. Leo Kamchinthang
3. Bro. T. Aloysius Nehkhojang 4. Mr. John Lunkhohao B.A
5. Catechist Peter Kammang 6. Catechist Samuel Khamzakhup
7. Mr. Paul Zamkholun
The following were the members of the Translation Committee.
1. Rev. L. Taithul B.D (MEP) 2. S.K Samte L.Th (MEP)
3. Rev. Ginzapao (MGP) 4. Rev. P.Khupdoukham (MGP)
5. Pro.Pastor T. Goulien L.Th (MGP) 6.Samuel Khamzakhup (Catholic)
7. John Amchinkam(Catholic) 8.Peter Kammang (Catholic)
9. Bro. Aloysius Nehkhojang(Catholic) 10. Evan. Chinzakhai B.Th (ZBC)
On 24th July 1975, on its third meeting, Rt. Rev. Abraham Alangimatathil D.D, Bishop of Kohima-Imphal Diocese and Rev. Fr. Augustine Reinbort attended the meeting at Don Bosco School Hall, Phailien. They assured the meeting that the Zo Holy Bible would be surely printed and Bishop exhorted them to work hard for the translation of the Bible and the rest would be taken care of by him. On its 4th meeting at Don Bosco School Hall, Phailien under the Chairmanship of Mr. Tunzakap, the Review Committee was expanded to include new members; Mr. M. Siehzathang, Mr. Lienzakap Dopmul, Mr. Peter Kammang, Mr. T.C Tungnung and Mr. Ginzapao.The First Review Meeting took place form September 1-30, 1975.
On 18th February 1976, the 6th meeting was held at Elder T. Dongzagin’s Residence, Rengkai under the Chairmanship of Mr. T.Thongpao, the ZICBTC was expanded to include Vice-Chairman and Joint Secretary.
The Review Camp started on 24th February 1976 at Daizang village and it ended on 22nd February 1977 with grand celebration with Rev. Fr. Joy as its Chief Guest, the event was attended by Bishop, Fr. Devasy and Fr. Joy.All of them were gifted with Zo traditional shawl.
The 11th meeting was held at Mr. Kaikhohao’s Residence at Zomi Colony, to review the N.T from April-May 1977 since the Chairman, Mr. Kamzadou Samte was not present the chair was occupied by Elder Chinzakhai.
On 11th July 1977 Mr. Thongpao, Mr. Semkholun and Bro. Nehkhojang met Bishop and they got his approval to place the Apocrypha(Deuterocanonical) in between the O.T and N.T. On 13th August 1977 under the Chairmanship of Mr. Thongpao the ZICBTC was re-constituted with the following persons. Chairman: Bro.Aloysius Nehkhojang, Vice-Chairman: Thongpao, Secretary: T. Semkholun, Jt.Secy: H.Chinzakhai, Treasurer: T. Ngulkhohen.
On 26th November 1978 Bro. Aloysius Nehkhojang left for SIGA, Madras. On 19th March 1982 Catechist Samuel Khamzakhup left for SIGA, Madras to assist Bro. Aloysius Nehkhojang in the press proof-reading. After more than 5 years of hard work and difficulties, the Holy Bible in Zo was finally released by Rt.Rev. Joseph Mittathany D.D, Bishop of Imphal at Good Shepherd Parish, Churachandpur, Manipur State, India for the first time in Zo history with grand and sumptuous lunch. Mr. T. Thongpao grew his beard from 1977 till 1983 waiting for the Holy Bible in Zo, it is said that he shaved off after the release of the Bible. His photos with long beard can be seen in some magazines.
In the early 1980s a man named Pu Siehzathang claimed to have discovered the lost script of Zo language in his dreams!. But,on detailed analysis it seems to be admixture of Burmese and Bengali script. Of course, the invention of this script shows his creativity of thought and the love of his language.This script needs fine tuning in terms of tones and vowel system.
Although, our Tedim/Tiddim Chin speaking brothers and large numbers of Zo speaking brethren have still clung onto their old orthography given by Rev. J.H. Cope without much changes and modernization, the Zo/Zou linguistic or language history in India saw a great turning-point which began with the translation of Holy Bible in Zo.
In 1995, under the aegis of the Bible Society of India, Bangalore, Rev. L.Taithul published the Holy Bible in Zomi minus Apocripha. This bible is also another unique piece of work in a sense that it preserved many linguistic structures, phrases and idioms and terminologies of ancient Zo language. These two versions of the Holy Bible in Zo language has been instrumental in bringing about uniformity in orthography and it has greatly influenced the literature world of the Zo/Zou community. Thus, the Zo/Zou people came to terms with two synonyms for Lord or Master ‘Mangpa or Topa’. Of course, the term ‘Mangpa’ is more widely used and preferred form for the meaning of ‘Lord’. The older orthographies of Rev. John.H.Cope and James Herbert Lorraine(he followed the Hunterian system developed by Sir William Hunter-author of Imperial Gazetteer,1900), underwent profound changes during the past 27 years of the existence of the Bibles in Zokam/Zohâm(Zo language) in India and Burma. The older orthagraphies have been modified to suit the Zo phonetics and phonology. The pioneer in this modernization of Zo orthography(spelling usages) is Mr. T. Aloysius Nehkhojang B.A, B.Th. Thus, we may conclude that the older spelling system was modified and modernized to fit the Zo phonetics rather than being a simple discarding of older spelling systems. He may be given the title of the Father of Modern Zo/Zou orthography.
In the year 1995 Zou Literature Society Manipur was registered under the Societies Registration Act. In the year 1998 Zou Cultural-cum-Literature Society Delhi was registered which was later on, rechristened as Zo Cultural-cum-Literature Society India. Besides, these societies there are other literature committees set up and maintained by various Church denominations for the development of Zo language; prominent among them is Zomi Christian Literature Committee of the former Zomi Christian Church now converted into Manipur Evangelical Lutheran Church(MELC), which is publishing a monthly magazine ‘Gospel Tangkou’. The Zou Presbyterian Church is regularly bringing out a bulletin called Khristian Tangkou. Both these bulletins more or less follow the Bible orthographies.
In 2000, the Zou Literature Society, Manipur published books for Cl.IX and X which is studied in the state of Manipur India. The orthography used in these books are mostly based on the Bibles in Zo language but there are lot of double vowels, which were devised by myself in my book ‘Zou Haamdih’ approved by the U.Z.O General Assemby-cum-Election at Singat in 1995. The punctuations adopted by Zou Literature Society Manipur contains a lot of hyphens and dashes which again gives the writing system quite uneconomical and cumbersome.
In 2001, the Zo Baptist Association Hqtrs, Kalaymyo, Myanmar(Burma) published a magazine known as ‘A.D 2000, ZO MAGAZINE’ dated March 2001 which gives a lot of information about the history, language, culture and religions of Zo people in Burma. One notable feature of this book is that it is written according to the orthography followed in the Holy Bibles in Zo language(1983 and 1995 versions). The magazine contains proper blends of the old orthography(J.H Cope, Hunterian) and new orthography A,B,C,D,….Z system propounded by Mr. T. Aloysius Nehkhojang B.A, B.Th which also again consists of beautiful blends of the old ones and the new ones. The orthography adopted in this magazine is easy to read but this newest trend in Zo linguistics still requires much more fine tuning and proper refinements for its final adoption as the orthography of Zo language.
In 2001 Rev. Fr. Andrew Gou Lien published a book called Catholic Biehpiehna leh Missa Bu with help of Catholic Church of Haka diocese using the same orthography as found in the Zo Bibles. In 2006,under the aegis of the Zo Cultural-cum-Literature Society India I published 5 books the most prominent being; ‘Dictionary of Zo Poetic Words, Metaphors and Similes Vol.I’. The other books are i) The Brief Biography of Subedar Peter ThangkhokamTungdim ii) Ka hinkhuo tomkim by Mari Lienzanieng iii) Ka Katekizam Masapen iv) Katholik Zailate leh Mass zuidan.
In 2006, the Zou Literature Society Manipur publised two books for Cl.X and XII viz; Chinthu Zaila by ZLSM and Zouham Zahdan(Zou Grammar and Composition) written by myself.
In 2006, the Zo Baptist Association, Hqtrs, Myanmar with the help of Bible Society of India, Bangalore published the Zo Lai Siengtho; Zo Bible consisting of the New Testament version with Psalms for their own use in Burma and India.
Philip Thanglienmang, M.A(Linguistics)